Difference between revisions of "Damage"

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[[Category:Patterns]]
 
[[Category:Patterns]]
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[[Category:Needs revision]]
 
[[Category:Needs revision]]
 
[[Category:Needs examples]]
 
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[[Category:Needs references]]
 
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[[Category:Stub]]
 
 
''Decremental effects from actions or events that can lead to negative consequences.''
 
''Decremental effects from actions or events that can lead to negative consequences.''
  
This pattern is a still a stub.
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In games, [[Damage]] is an indication that players have failed to avoid the actions of enemies or dangerous objects in the game. The effects of [[Damage]] in most games are minor; it is mainly used as an indicator of how many times one may fail before more serious effects occur.
 
+
Damage is an indication that players have failed to avoid the actions of enemies or dangerous objects in the game. The effects of Damage in most games are minor; it is mainly used as an indicator of how many times one may fail in a certain manor before more serious effects occur.
+
  
 
=== Examples ===
 
=== Examples ===
[[Left 4 Dead series]]
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Few [[:Category:FPS Games|First-Person Shooters]] make all hits instantaneous kills. Rather they require players to succeed with shots or strikes several times, each one giving [[Damage]], before killing their opponents. One exception includes the ability to kill instantaneously through headshots, and can found in [[Counter-Strike]] and the [[Left 4 Dead series]].
 
+
Few first-person shooters make all hits instantaneous kills. Rather they require players to succeed with shots or strikes several times, each one giving Damage, before killing their opponents.
+
  
Roleplaying games often have detailed rules for Damage, dividing character's bodies into different hit areas and having different consequences for taking Damage in each area.
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Roleplaying games, both in [[:Category:Computer-based Roleplaying Games|Computer-based]] such as the [[Fallout series]] and in [[:Category:Tabletop Roleplaying Games|Tabletop]] varieties such as [[GURPS]], often have detailed rules for how [[Damage]] can occur and what effects it has, e.g. dividing character's bodies into different hit areas and having different consequences for taking [[Damage]] in each area.
  
In the board game RoboRally the first points of Damage reduced the number of cards received each round. However, more Damage makes some cards be repeated each turn and severely limit the possible actions each turn. Even more Damage destroys the robot.
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In the board game [[RoboRally]], the first points of [[Damage]] reduces the number of cards received each round. However, more [[Damage]] makes some earlier cards be repeated each turn, and this severely limits the freedom of player actions each turn. Even more [[Damage]] destroys the robot.
  
 
== Using the pattern ==
 
== Using the pattern ==
Designing [[Damage]] effects consist of determining how damage is measured or what effects it causes, who or what can be affected by it, and if, and in the case how, its effect can be reversed.
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Designing [[Damage]] effects consist of deciding what causes it, how it is measured or what effects it causes, and who or what can be affected by it (see [[Ability Losses]], [[Decreased Abilities]], and [[Health]] for notes on reversing the effects of [[Damage]]). Most design where taking [[Damage]] once does not kill makes use [[Health]], so considering that pattern is often relevant when designing games where [[Damage]] can occur.
  
The most common type of [[Damage]] is simply a reduction of [Health]] (some times called hit points) or [[Armor]]. Additional effects such as forced [[Downtime]], reduced [[Skills]], or other [[Ability Losses]] can be used to create [[Damage]], but these are often reserved for special hits. Independent of how the [[Damage]] was caused its numerical values can either be fixed or be determined by a function. Fixed [[Damage]] values give [[Predictable Consequences]] while functions can be used to create [[Randomness]] and increase the potential interest for each time [[Damage]] is received. If [[Damage]] comes as effect of [[Surprises]], the severity of these are increased but the possibility of players' having [[Exaggerated Perception of Influence]] may be negatively affected.
+
[[Weapons]] are an obvious choice for game entities that should cause [[Damage]], but other common examples include [[Vehicles]] (when they can be used to hit other entities) and [[Tools]] (when they can be used as improvised [[Weapons]]). [[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]] and the [[Battlefield series]] use all these options ([[Minecraft]] too except for [[Vehicles]] being ineffective). [[Environmental Effects]] and [[Traps]] is another source for [[Damage]] but in this case, the [[Damage]] they cause is often what defines them (it should be noted that [[Environmental Effects]] or [[Game Items]] that cause [[Damage]] can together be [[Traps]]). Taking another perspective, the cause for receiving [[Damage]] can be failing to detect [[Surprise Attacks]], failing to succeed in [[Evade]] goals, or failing in [[Maneuvering]] to avoid [[Obstacles]] or [[Diegetically Tangible Game Items]]. [[Moveable Tiles]] are in this respect similar to [[Obstacles]] except that they may what moves instead of players' [[Focus Loci]], and if this makes it impossible to hinder the [[Tiles]] from moving this is a type of [[Ultra-Powerful Events]]. Less common reasons for [[Damage]] include not being [[King of the Hill]] or making [[Consumers]] perform actions where the needed [[Resources]] are described in terms of [[Health]].
  
[[Avatars]], [[Characters]], and [[Units]] are common entities that can be affected by [[Damage]], but games can also let objects in [[Game Worlds]] be affected by [[Damage]] if they are [[Destructible Objects]]. Typically not all objects can be destroyed, a quite common solution is to let the results of [[Construction]] be able to destroy through [[Damage]].
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The most common type of [[Damage]] is simply a reduction of [[Health]], sometimes called hit points but the [[Quake series]] shows how [[Damage]] can be used to reduce both [[Health]] and [[Armor]] characteristics. [[Resources]] can also stand in as an alternative. In all these cases the [[Damage]] are [[Energy Penalties]]. However, other effects such as forced [[Downtime]], [[Disruption of Focused Attention]], reduced [[Skills]], loss of aiming in games with [[Variable Accuracy]], [[Movement Limitations]], and [[Ability Losses]] can be used to create [[Damage]], and these can be used together with reductions of [[Health]] to create [[Critical Hits]] (another easier way is simply to increase the [[Damage]] provided). Independent of how the [[Damage]] was caused its numerical values can either be fixed or be determined by a function. Fixed [[Damage]] values give [[Predictable Consequences]] while functions can be used to create [[Randomness]] and increase the potential interest for each time [[Damage]] is received. If [[Damage]] comes as effect of [[Surprises]], the severity of these are increased but the possibility of players' having [[Exaggerated Perception of Influence]] may be negatively affected. In games with [[Lives]], an option for [[Damage]] is directly to cause [[Life Penalties]] rather than do it as the effects of depleting some [[Resources|Resource]] (most commonly [[Health]]).  
  
 +
The basic amount of [[Damage]] give is typically a fixed value or a combination of [[Dice]]. How much [[Damage]] is actually given can however be modulated by in many ways. One way is to introduce [[Risk/Reward]] aspects through that parts that are more difficult to hit suffer more [[Damage]] if hit. An example of this is the possibility to do instantaneous kills with head shots in first-person shooters such as [[Counter-Strike]]. [[Vulnerabilities]] give extra [[Damage]] if the attack is of a specific type or hits specific areas, and knowing about this is [[Strategic Knowledge]] if this is not obvious (this is often the case with [[Achilles' Heels]]). [[Combos]] is another option where succeeding with them result in increased [[Damage]]. [[Difficulty Levels]] and [[Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment]] can be used to regulate if games should have [[Challenging Gameplay]] or to achieve [[Player Balance|Player]] or [[Team Balance]]. The amount of [[Damage]] taken can often be diminish or cancelled by pre-emptive or counter actions. Examples of counter actions include using [[Privileged Abilities]] (e.g. playing "blocking" [[Cards]] in [[:Category:Card Games|Card Games]]), or performing blocking or parrying maneuvers. Examples of pre-emptive actions include donning [[Armor]] or activating [[Invulnerabilities]] (e.g. activating "übercharges" in [[Team Fortress 2]]). Permanent [[Invulnerabilities]] reduce the presence of the [[Damage]] pattern but does not have to eliminate it completely if several different types of [[Damage]] exist.
  
 
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[[Avatars]], [[Characters]], and [[Units]] are common entities that can be affected by [[Damage]], but games can also let [[Diegetically Tangible Game Items]] in [[Game Worlds]] be affected by [[Damage]] if they are [[Destructible Objects]]. Typically, not all objects can be destroyed; a quite common solution is to make it possible to destroy the results of [[Construction]].
What type of Damage is caused, how the severity of the Damage is calculated, how much accumulated Damage is needed before additional effects take place, if players can affect the severity of a Damage,
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Modulating damage by affecting where it is given can allow players to have an influence of the severity of Damage. An example of this is the possibility to do instantaneous kills with head shots in many first-person shooters. If it is not obvious where to hit to inflict greater damage, this area is an Achilles' Heels and the information is Strategic Knowledge.
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Player may also diminish or cancel the amount of Damage they receive by counter or pre-emptive actions. Examples of counter actions include using Privileged Abilities (most common in games with the special effect as Cards) or performing blocking or parrying maneuvers. Examples of pre-emptive actions include gaining invulnerability or armor, both usually received as Privileged Abilities of Power-Ups or Pick-Ups.
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The amount of Damage received is usually indicated by a Status Indicator in order for players to perceive the severity of the Damage and gain knowledge about what caused the Damage.
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If Damages can be healed or repaired, they can make Resources such as health or armor into Renewable Resources. The actual effect of healing or repairing offers the same design choices as for other Renewable Resources.
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The cause for receiving Damage is the most often due to failing to Evade the effects of Deadly Traps or Combat. Less common reasons for Damage include not being the King of the Hill or making a Consumer perform actions where the resources used are described in terms of Damage.
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When Damage gives immediate effects, the most common types of effects are Ability Loss, forced Downtime, or Disruption of Focused Attention.
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=== Can Modulate ===
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[[Diegetically Tangible Game Items]],  
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[[Obstacles]],  
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=== Can Instantiate ===
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[[Environmental Effects]],
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[[Traps]]
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+
==== with [[Environmental Effects]] ====
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[[Traps]]
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+
==== with [[Game Items]] ====
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[[Surprises]],  
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[[Traps]]
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+
=== Can Be Instantiated By ===
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[[Diegetically Tangible Game Items]],
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[[Tools]],
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[[Vehicles]],
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[[Weapons]]
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=== Can Be Modulated By ===
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[[Armor]],  
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[[Combos]],
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[[Difficulty Levels]],
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[[Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment]],
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[[Game State Indicators]],
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[[Movement Limitations]],
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[[Privileged Abilities]],
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=== Diegetic Aspects ===
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=== Interface Aspects ===
 
=== Interface Aspects ===
 
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The amount of [[Damage]] received is usually indicated by [[Game State Indicators]] in order for players to perceive the severity of the [[Damage]] and gain knowledge about what caused the [[Damage]]. When objects in gameplay environments have been damaged, they may be augmented with [[Diegetically Outstanding Features]] to show their status. In both cases, [[Damage]] can cause [[Traces]] to let players have [[Clues]] about what events have taken place.
=== Narrative Aspects ===
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== Consequences ==
 
== Consequences ==
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While accumulated [[Damage]] can make [[Player Killing]] possible in games, it can also be used to increase granularity to [[Combat]] by making attacks not directly lose [[Lives]]. This also allows modulation of [[Eliminate]] goals so that not one single successful attack eliminates an [[Enemies|Enemy]] but rather several successes are required. It can also introduce [[Deterioration]] to [[Game Items]] and destruction to [[Destructible Objects]], creating [[Risk/Reward]] consideration for using [[Construction]] when the results of this activity can be destroyed. In general, how much [[Damage]] can be received before more severe [[Penalties]] are inflicted modulates [[Risk/Reward]] choices players do when they are under risk of taking [[Damage]].
 
While accumulated [[Damage]] can make [[Player Killing]] possible in games, it can also be used to increase granularity to [[Combat]] by making attacks not directly lose [[Lives]]. This also allows modulation of [[Eliminate]] goals so that not one single successful attack eliminates an [[Enemies|Enemy]] but rather several successes are required. It can also introduce [[Deterioration]] to [[Game Items]] and destruction to [[Destructible Objects]], creating [[Risk/Reward]] consideration for using [[Construction]] when the results of this activity can be destroyed. In general, how much [[Damage]] can be received before more severe [[Penalties]] are inflicted modulates [[Risk/Reward]] choices players do when they are under risk of taking [[Damage]].
  
Like [[Lives]], [[Damage]] can be seen as a measure of how many times one may fail avoiding bad effects in a game before a more severe [[Penalties|Penalty]] is imposed. However, [[Damage]] works on a smaller scale and may have no effect on player's [[Freedom of Choice]] until the accumulated [[Damage]] is translated into another form of [[Penalties|Penalty]], typically the loss of [[Lives]] or the destruction of [[Units]].
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Like [[Lives]], [[Damage]] can be seen as a measure of how many times one may fail avoiding bad effects in a game before a more severe [[Penalties|Penalty]] is imposed. In this sense, it can be seen as a [[Resources|Resource]]. However, [[Damage]] works on a smaller scale and may have no effect on player's [[Freedom of Choice]] until the accumulated [[Damage]] is translated into another form of [[Penalties|Penalty]], typically the loss of [[Lives]] or the destruction of [[Units]].
 
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== Relations ==
 
== Relations ==
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[[Penalties]],  
 
[[Penalties]],  
 
[[Player Killing]],  
 
[[Player Killing]],  
 +
[[Resources]],
 
[[Strategic Knowledge]],  
 
[[Strategic Knowledge]],  
 
[[Surprises]],  
 
[[Surprises]],  
 
[[Tension]],
 
[[Tension]],
 +
[[Traces]],
 
[[Traps]]
 
[[Traps]]
  
 
[[Player/Character Skill Composites]] in games with [[Combat]]
 
[[Player/Character Skill Composites]] in games with [[Combat]]
 +
 +
==== with [[Armor]], [[Health]], or [[Resources]] ====
 +
[[Energy Penalties]]
  
 
==== with [[Construction]] ====
 
==== with [[Construction]] ====
 
[[Risk/Reward]]
 
[[Risk/Reward]]
  
==== with [[Environmental Effects]] ====
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==== with [[Environmental Effects]] or [[Game Items]] ====
 
[[Traps]]
 
[[Traps]]
  
==== with [[Game Items]] ====
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==== with [[Health]] and [[Downtime]], [[Disruption of Focused Attention]], [[Skills]], [[Variable Accuracy]], [[Movement Limitations]], or [[Ability Losses]] ====
[[Surprises]],
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[[Critical Hits]]
[[Traps]]
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 +
==== with [[Lives]] ====
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[[Life Penalties]]
 +
 
 +
==== with [[Moveable Tiles]] ====
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[[Ultra-Powerful Events]]
  
 
=== Can Modulate ===
 
=== Can Modulate ===
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[[Combat]],  
 
[[Combat]],  
 
[[Construction]],  
 
[[Construction]],  
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[[Consumers]],
 
[[Destructible Objects]],  
 
[[Destructible Objects]],  
 
[[Diegetically Tangible Game Items]],  
 
[[Diegetically Tangible Game Items]],  
 
[[Eliminate]],  
 
[[Eliminate]],  
 
[[Game Items]],  
 
[[Game Items]],  
 +
[[King of the Hill]],
 
[[Lives]],  
 
[[Lives]],  
 +
[[Maneuvering]],
 
[[Obstacles]],  
 
[[Obstacles]],  
 
[[Risk/Reward]],  
 
[[Risk/Reward]],  
[[Units]]
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[[Skills]],
 +
[[Units]],
 +
[[Variable Accuracy]]
  
 
=== Can Be Instantiated By ===
 
=== Can Be Instantiated By ===
 
[[Ability Losses]],  
 
[[Ability Losses]],  
 
[[Diegetically Tangible Game Items]],  
 
[[Diegetically Tangible Game Items]],  
 +
[[Disruption of Focused Attention]],
 
[[Downtime]],  
 
[[Downtime]],  
[[Skills]],  
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[[Moveable Tiles]],
 +
[[Movement Limitations]],
 +
[[Surprise Attacks]],  
 
[[Tools]],  
 
[[Tools]],  
 
[[Vehicles]],  
 
[[Vehicles]],  
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=== Can Be Modulated By ===
 
=== Can Be Modulated By ===
 +
[[Achilles' Heels]],
 
[[Armor]],  
 
[[Armor]],  
 
[[Combos]],  
 
[[Combos]],  
 +
[[Critical Hits]],
 +
[[Diegetically Outstanding Features]],
 
[[Difficulty Levels]],  
 
[[Difficulty Levels]],  
 +
[[Dice]],
 
[[Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment]],  
 
[[Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment]],  
 
[[Game State Indicators]],  
 
[[Game State Indicators]],  
 
[[Health]],  
 
[[Health]],  
[[Movement Limitations]],  
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[[Invulnerabilities]],  
 
[[Predictable Consequences]],  
 
[[Predictable Consequences]],  
 
[[Privileged Abilities]],  
 
[[Privileged Abilities]],  
[[Randomness]]
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[[Randomness]],
 +
[[Risk/Reward]],
 +
[[Traces]],
 +
[[Vulnerabilities]]
  
 
=== Possible Closure Effects ===
 
=== Possible Closure Effects ===
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=== Potentially Conflicting With ===
 
=== Potentially Conflicting With ===
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[[Invulnerabilities]]
  
 
== History ==
 
== History ==

Latest revision as of 14:16, 24 August 2015

Decremental effects from actions or events that can lead to negative consequences.

In games, Damage is an indication that players have failed to avoid the actions of enemies or dangerous objects in the game. The effects of Damage in most games are minor; it is mainly used as an indicator of how many times one may fail before more serious effects occur.

Examples

Few First-Person Shooters make all hits instantaneous kills. Rather they require players to succeed with shots or strikes several times, each one giving Damage, before killing their opponents. One exception includes the ability to kill instantaneously through headshots, and can found in Counter-Strike and the Left 4 Dead series.

Roleplaying games, both in Computer-based such as the Fallout series and in Tabletop varieties such as GURPS, often have detailed rules for how Damage can occur and what effects it has, e.g. dividing character's bodies into different hit areas and having different consequences for taking Damage in each area.

In the board game RoboRally, the first points of Damage reduces the number of cards received each round. However, more Damage makes some earlier cards be repeated each turn, and this severely limits the freedom of player actions each turn. Even more Damage destroys the robot.

Using the pattern

Designing Damage effects consist of deciding what causes it, how it is measured or what effects it causes, and who or what can be affected by it (see Ability Losses, Decreased Abilities, and Health for notes on reversing the effects of Damage). Most design where taking Damage once does not kill makes use Health, so considering that pattern is often relevant when designing games where Damage can occur.

Weapons are an obvious choice for game entities that should cause Damage, but other common examples include Vehicles (when they can be used to hit other entities) and Tools (when they can be used as improvised Weapons). Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas and the Battlefield series use all these options (Minecraft too except for Vehicles being ineffective). Environmental Effects and Traps is another source for Damage but in this case, the Damage they cause is often what defines them (it should be noted that Environmental Effects or Game Items that cause Damage can together be Traps). Taking another perspective, the cause for receiving Damage can be failing to detect Surprise Attacks, failing to succeed in Evade goals, or failing in Maneuvering to avoid Obstacles or Diegetically Tangible Game Items. Moveable Tiles are in this respect similar to Obstacles except that they may what moves instead of players' Focus Loci, and if this makes it impossible to hinder the Tiles from moving this is a type of Ultra-Powerful Events. Less common reasons for Damage include not being King of the Hill or making Consumers perform actions where the needed Resources are described in terms of Health.

The most common type of Damage is simply a reduction of Health, sometimes called hit points but the Quake series shows how Damage can be used to reduce both Health and Armor characteristics. Resources can also stand in as an alternative. In all these cases the Damage are Energy Penalties. However, other effects such as forced Downtime, Disruption of Focused Attention, reduced Skills, loss of aiming in games with Variable Accuracy, Movement Limitations, and Ability Losses can be used to create Damage, and these can be used together with reductions of Health to create Critical Hits (another easier way is simply to increase the Damage provided). Independent of how the Damage was caused its numerical values can either be fixed or be determined by a function. Fixed Damage values give Predictable Consequences while functions can be used to create Randomness and increase the potential interest for each time Damage is received. If Damage comes as effect of Surprises, the severity of these are increased but the possibility of players' having Exaggerated Perception of Influence may be negatively affected. In games with Lives, an option for Damage is directly to cause Life Penalties rather than do it as the effects of depleting some Resource (most commonly Health).

The basic amount of Damage give is typically a fixed value or a combination of Dice. How much Damage is actually given can however be modulated by in many ways. One way is to introduce Risk/Reward aspects through that parts that are more difficult to hit suffer more Damage if hit. An example of this is the possibility to do instantaneous kills with head shots in first-person shooters such as Counter-Strike. Vulnerabilities give extra Damage if the attack is of a specific type or hits specific areas, and knowing about this is Strategic Knowledge if this is not obvious (this is often the case with Achilles' Heels). Combos is another option where succeeding with them result in increased Damage. Difficulty Levels and Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment can be used to regulate if games should have Challenging Gameplay or to achieve Player or Team Balance. The amount of Damage taken can often be diminish or cancelled by pre-emptive or counter actions. Examples of counter actions include using Privileged Abilities (e.g. playing "blocking" Cards in Card Games), or performing blocking or parrying maneuvers. Examples of pre-emptive actions include donning Armor or activating Invulnerabilities (e.g. activating "übercharges" in Team Fortress 2). Permanent Invulnerabilities reduce the presence of the Damage pattern but does not have to eliminate it completely if several different types of Damage exist.

Avatars, Characters, and Units are common entities that can be affected by Damage, but games can also let Diegetically Tangible Game Items in Game Worlds be affected by Damage if they are Destructible Objects. Typically, not all objects can be destroyed; a quite common solution is to make it possible to destroy the results of Construction.

Interface Aspects

The amount of Damage received is usually indicated by Game State Indicators in order for players to perceive the severity of the Damage and gain knowledge about what caused the Damage. When objects in gameplay environments have been damaged, they may be augmented with Diegetically Outstanding Features to show their status. In both cases, Damage can cause Traces to let players have Clues about what events have taken place.

Consequences

Damage is a form of Penalty in games. Since the effect of Damage usually has Predictable Consequences, both the possibility of Damage and actually suffering Damage can be causes of Tension. When Damage can come in many different forms or have different effect, knowing about these represent Strategic Knowledge. When Combat requires player skill, Damage can provide a system component to create Player/Character Skill Composites.

While accumulated Damage can make Player Killing possible in games, it can also be used to increase granularity to Combat by making attacks not directly lose Lives. This also allows modulation of Eliminate goals so that not one single successful attack eliminates an Enemy but rather several successes are required. It can also introduce Deterioration to Game Items and destruction to Destructible Objects, creating Risk/Reward consideration for using Construction when the results of this activity can be destroyed. In general, how much Damage can be received before more severe Penalties are inflicted modulates Risk/Reward choices players do when they are under risk of taking Damage.

Like Lives, Damage can be seen as a measure of how many times one may fail avoiding bad effects in a game before a more severe Penalty is imposed. In this sense, it can be seen as a Resource. However, Damage works on a smaller scale and may have no effect on player's Freedom of Choice until the accumulated Damage is translated into another form of Penalty, typically the loss of Lives or the destruction of Units.

Relations

Can Instantiate

Deterioration, Environmental Effects, Penalties, Player Killing, Resources, Strategic Knowledge, Surprises, Tension, Traces, Traps

Player/Character Skill Composites in games with Combat

with Armor, Health, or Resources

Energy Penalties

with Construction

Risk/Reward

with Environmental Effects or Game Items

Traps

with Health and Downtime, Disruption of Focused Attention, Skills, Variable Accuracy, Movement Limitations, or Ability Losses

Critical Hits

with Lives

Life Penalties

with Moveable Tiles

Ultra-Powerful Events

Can Modulate

Avatars, Characters, Combat, Construction, Consumers, Destructible Objects, Diegetically Tangible Game Items, Eliminate, Game Items, King of the Hill, Lives, Maneuvering, Obstacles, Risk/Reward, Skills, Units, Variable Accuracy

Can Be Instantiated By

Ability Losses, Diegetically Tangible Game Items, Disruption of Focused Attention, Downtime, Moveable Tiles, Movement Limitations, Surprise Attacks, Tools, Vehicles, Weapons

Can Be Modulated By

Achilles' Heels, Armor, Combos, Critical Hits, Diegetically Outstanding Features, Difficulty Levels, Dice, Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment, Game State Indicators, Health, Invulnerabilities, Predictable Consequences, Privileged Abilities, Randomness, Risk/Reward, Traces, Vulnerabilities

Possible Closure Effects

-

Potentially Conflicting With

Invulnerabilities

History

An updated version of the pattern Damage that was part of the original collection in the book Patterns in Game Design[1].

References

  1. Björk, S. & Holopainen, J. (2004) Patterns in Game Design. Charles River Media. ISBN1-58450-354-8.

Acknowledgements

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